Treatment of dampness in walls in many ways

Dampness is the cause, reason and initiator of many defects and diseases in all sorts of construction from roads and transport systems to building and housing facilities. It might be a headache for you in rainy season and it might not let you sleep easily because of the danger and consequences of its presence. This post will let you know how to treat if your walls or building is being effected by dampness as well as will give you remedial measure that will ensure safety of your structure from all such devastating defects.

Dampness in walls

Before applying any remedial measure to a damp wall there should be free escape for any water that has already entered in the wall.

Silica Solution is transparent and very effective in resisting dampness.

Internal Treatment of walls 

Internal treatment of affected walls would consist of removing the old plaster, applying a slurry coat of neat cement with a water proofing compound and then cement rendering with a dense mortar, of 1:2 with integral water proofer added.

Another internal treatment for damp walls is the application of an impervious coating of some material or a coating of bitumen or tar followed by blinding with sand and plastering.

Preventing Dampness in walls

The following methods are also used for preventing dampness in walls

a) Two parts by weight of coal tar and one part by weight of pitch are put in a vessel, heated and stirred, until the mixture is sufficiently liquid. It is then applied on walls, and is found to keep out dampness very wall.
b) Spray or paint the walls with a solution of sodium silicate, followed by a solution of calcium chloride, which forms an insoluble silicate.

If dampness is confined to one position near ground floor level above the D.P.C., it may be due to a hole or crack in D.P.C. through which moisture can pass into the wall alone.
Dampness below ground level may be due to lack of sub-soil drainage, absence of vertical D.P.C.

Repelling Materials

Water repelling compounds are mixed in cement to make it water repellant, Examples are;
a) Chemically active ….. sodium and potassium soaps
b) Chemically inactive ….. calcium soaps and resin oils

Unable to Connect to Database Connection, Would you like to configure the database connection now? Primavera P6 [SOLVED]

During the Primavera running process or mostly due to computer crash due to power supply failure or any similar issue you got an error in Primavera P6 regarding connection to database PMDB, 

Reason

PMDB is Project Management Database that is connected via Microsoft SQL Server (PRIMAVERA). What happens due to computer or PC crash this service gets stopped and PM can’t run this service on its own and thus you have to run this service;

Unable to Connect to the database. Would you like to configure the database connection now? 

Solution

For that;

1) After getting the error “Unable to connect to the database. Would you like to configure the database connection now?” just hit “NO” click Cancel in the Login to Primavera Window and close the application;

2) Go to the location; 

C:\ProgramData\Microsoft\Windows\Start Menu\Programs\Microsoft SQL Server 2005\Configuration Tools

Run SQL Server Configuration manager (Click to enlarge) 

3) And run the SQL Server Configuration Manager as shown;

SQL Server Configuration Manager (Click to Enlarge)

4) Select SQL 2005 Service from the left you will see SQL Server (Primavera) having red status symbol shown on the server showing the service is stopped, 

5) Right click the SQL Server (Primavera) and click Start the Service and wait for the service to get started.

Run the SQL Server (Primavera) (Click to Enlarge)

Run the Service and Your are done (Click to Enlarge)

6) Now run the Primavera and you are done,

If you have any further queries just contact us via admin@iamcivilengineer.com

What is Liquidated damages? What are its clauses

Monetary compensation for a loss, detriment, or injury to a person or a person's rights or property, awarded by a court judgment or by a contract stipulation regarding violation of contract.

Definition

Cash compensation, agreed to by signed, written contract for breach of contract, payable to the aggrieved party. {Law Dictionary: (Black's Law Dictionary}

Generally, contracts that involve the exchange of money or the promise of performance have a liquidated damages stipulation. The purpose of this stipulation is to establish a predetermined sum that must be paid if a party fails to perform as promised.

Conditions when Liquidated damages are imposed:

Damages can be liquidated in a contract only if
1)    First, the amount of the damages identified must roughly approximate the damages likely to fall upon the party seeking the benefit of the term.

2)        Second, the damages must be sufficiently uncertain at the time the contract is made that such a clause will likely save both parties the future difficulty of estimating damages.

Difference between liquidated damages and un-liquidated damages (penalty)

At common law, a liquidated damages clause will not be enforced if its purpose is to punish the wrongdoer/party in breach rather than to compensate the injured party (in which case it is referred to as a penal or penalty clause).

A penalty will be imposed if the loss or damage is reasonably certain if it’s uncertain then liquidated damages clause will be imposed.

Examples of liquidated damage

For example, suppose Saad Iqbal agrees to lease a store-front to Zubair Saleem, from which Zubair intends to sell jewelry. If Saad breaches the contract by refusing to lease the store-front at the appointed time, it will be difficult to determine what profits Zubair will have lost because the success of newly created small businesses is highly uncertain. This, therefore, would be an appropriate circumstance for Zubair to insist upon a liquidated damages clause in case Saad fails to perform.

Undisclosed source code has value as a trade secret. Openly publishing the source code destroys the trade secret value. The trade secret value of source code is difficult or impossible to prove. There is no open market for "secret source code".

In the case of construction contracts, courts have occasionally refused to enforce liquidated damages provisions when both parties have contributed to the overall delay of the project.

Solid waste disposal and collection system in Pakistan

Solid Waste is basically defined as a material which has no value for the people, the people themselves are responsible for this trash and is not carried through sewerage pipes and as the name suggests is in solid form. There are a number of sources from which solid waste is generated, distribution of solid waste varies from area to area, and few of them are; Domestic, Commercial, Industrial, healthcare, agricultural and mineral extraction activities and accumulates in houses and other places.

Solid Waste Management System in Pakistan

Some other keywords that are considered as similar to this include Garbage, trash and rubbish.
Now if we talk about the management of this solid waste, termed as solid waste management, we mean it as generation, separation, collection, transfer, transportation and disposal of waste in a way that takes into account public health, economics, conservation, aesthetics, and the environment, and is responsive to public demands.

Common Types of Waste mostly generated 

The most common types of solid waste are:
• Municipal solid waste
• Industrial waste
• Agricultural waste
• Hazardous waste
The solid waste composition varies from region to region and time to time. There are following different types of waste.
Biodegradable waste i.e. could be decomposed naturally such as food and kitchen waste, green waste, paper, etc.
Recyclable material i.e. could be recycled again and again; such as paper, glass, bottles, cans, metals, certain plastics ,fabrics, clothes, batteries etc.
Inert waste i.e. not liable to decompose; such as construction and demolition waste, dirt, rocks, debris, etc.
Electrical and electronic waste (WEEE); such as electrical appliances, TVs, computers, screens, etc.
Composite wastes; such as waste clothing, Tetra Packs, waste plastic, etc.

Domestic hazardous waste & toxic waste medication; such as paints, chemicals, light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide containers, shoe polish, etc.

Failure of SWM in Pakistan

The consequences of failure of this solid waste management system are disastrous for the health of the community and the smooth running of life in that region. Some common problems as seen because of this failure includes, land and air pollution, blockage of drains and water pollution in natural streams.
Factors affecting solid waste management
The success or failure of this management system is dependent on many factors and many areas are there to be considered like public awareness because you can’t hold of the garbage thrown every second on the local street by the so-called educated humans, similarly due to increase of population there is an unplanned city growth that causes troubles and difficulties for the authorities to handle such a large amount of garbage. Mostly in cities and municipalities in Pakistan there are although no proper system of disposal management or even if it is there the maintenance and proper functioning are not up to the mark. The other very important factor to be considered is the rate of urbanization with the advancements and development in countries the communities are shifting from rural areas and urban areas and thus more utilization of advance products and thus more garbage is there.

Solid Waste Collection system in Pakistan and its effects

In Pakistan the absence of a proper solid waste disposal system and huge amount of uncollected wastes posses great threat to the public health as they are the source of mosquitoes and cholera which transmit malaria and cholera later on. One of a very hazardous and un-noticed drawback of the waste disposal in Pakistan is that hospital and industrial waste is treated as ordinary waste.
The condition of waste management system from the collection of waste to its proper disposal is, to put it mildly, pathetic in Pakistan. Only 50% of solid waste quantities generated are collected by government services. However, for cities to be clean, at least 70% of these quantities should be collected.

Increase in the solid waste is due to increase in urban population, industrialization, changing consumption pattern and also effluent life style. Due to these trends many cities are unable to cope with increase volume of solid waste, especially in middle and low income countries. During the late period of 1900’s annual waste production ranged from 300-800 kg per person in many developed countries to less than 200 per kg per person in less developed countries.

In Pakistan solid waste management is a significant problem being faced. Despite of the fact that there are many polices being formulated for the protection of the environment from solid waste but these policies are only implemented in cities. In rural areas of Pakistan mostly open dumping is done.

A number of municipalities have deployed sweepers for waste collection but the service is reported to be irregular and limited to prominent administrative or commercial areas. Citizens are not provided with enough rubbish bins. In fact, those bins can only be found along the main roads. Those who live further away prefer not to take the trouble: the majority of home waste ends up being thrown away on empty plots.
Solid Waste Management consists of various stages including primary collection that is done from house hold to dust bin sites manually. Secondary collection is done from dust bin sites to land fill sites mechanically and final disposal is at landfill sites.

Integrated Solid Waste management (ISWM) is a combination of those activities that best protects the community itself and environment. For ISWM a sustainable approach is required by giving the stake holders to participate in the process of ISWM and share their responsibilities.

Some of the significant features of solid waste management shows that the composition of solid waste in Pakistan that comes from different sources have a high percentage of organic waste, that can be recovered via composting and recycling. In most cities of Pakistan poor collection and transportation of municipal solid waste is reported.

The estimated quantity of solid waste generation in Pakistan ranges between 0.283 to 0.612 kg / capital / day and waste generation growth rate is 2.4 percentages per year.  Due to poor solid waste management there are large number of communicable diseases and unhygienic environment being created.

Much of the uncollected waste ultimately finds its way into empty plots, farming land, pits and ponds. It creates an ideal environment for flies and mosquitoes to dwell on and is not only harmful for the people living in that area, but also for plants and animals.
In Pakistan Solid Waste management has not been carried out in proper manner and the condition is getting worse by the time. The major problem causing factors are rate of urbanization, composition of waste, scavenger role for recyclable separation and the capacities of existing municipalities for solid waste management.
For the change of attitude and behavior of public, education and awareness is very important. For this purpose we may use different strategies, e.g., education session for common man regarding disposal of garbage. By this way we can educate the common man regarding how they can play their role in solid waste management.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The recommendations that can be considered for the improvement of the current situation regarding solid waste management in Pakistan includes, raising awareness about consequences caused by solid waste pollution, role of government sector, NGO’s, Private sector collectively for solid waste management, legislation should be done which would be effective and find ways to implement it effectively, application of 3R’s (Reduce, Recycle and Reuse) concept in solid waste management. House to house collection of solid waste should be organized. Littering of solid waste should be prohibited in cities, towns and urban areas. Proper segregation would be vital for scientific disposal of waste. Developing legal framework and national guidelines for solid waste management that includes waste management rules and basic recycling rules.

Installing Problem of ETABS, Patch problem [SOLVED]

Some of users of iamcivilengineer.com have encountered a problem while cracking ETABS, the problem is when they used to crack or patch the main file “etabs.exe” the patch program displays an error regarding not able to open the “etabs.exe”. This problem mostly occurs on Windows 7 and Windows 8 because of improved security reasons, the windows blocks the un-necessary opening of programs for smooth working of windows and to ensure safety from virus threats.

To solve this issue you just have to increase the user privileges on “etabs.exe” to open it as an administrator and to modify the file as well, to do so, just find the file in

C:/Program Files/Computers and Structures/ETABS 9/Etabs.exe

This path may vary depending upon the location where you have installed ETABS, right click this file and select Properties, from the properties dialog box click on the Security tab and then click edit as shown;

From the opened dialog box select the username from which you have logged into windows in users and groups and then from “permission for users” make sure to tick mark all the controls as shown;

And then click Apply, Ok and then again Ok

Now just patch the file again from “CENL950.exe” and click patch, and now the file should have been patched successfully as shown;

and that’s all

From Editors Desk

I hope this will solve many prblems and worries, Dont forget to share it with your friends. 

What are the different types of shear failure in foundation?

Soil mostly fail in shear, thus when foundation load is transferred to the soil, the soil may fail in shear in 3 modes names as; (a) General Shear Failure (b) Local Shear failure (c) Punching shear failure;
The type of failure that will occur in the soil due to foundation load will depend upon the type of soil, its state of compactness or gradation in case of granular soil;

Failure Types in foundation

a)    General Shear Failure;

The most common type of failure in foundation is general shear failure; general shear failure mostly occurs in dense or very dense granular soil which might be sand or gravels or it may be stiff or hard cohesive soil which is well compacted or having low moisture content. In load deformation curve there is relatively small deformation with increasing load showing a clear peak represented by a sudden drop of load after peak.
In the failure of the soil mass the failure plane will extend to the surface of the soil and there is clear bulging extending out of the soil surface. In case of soil sample the failure will occur at peak load and the failure planes will move relative to each other.

(b) Local Shear Failure

 Local shear failure mostly occur in loose and medium dense granular soil which might be sand or gravel and soft and medium cohesive soil which might be medium compacted or high moisture content.
In load deformation curve; there is no peak and after a certain load there are sudden jerks, in the soil mass there is small broken bulging and the failure surface is not that clear. Same is the case will the soil sample failed in local shear failure while testing with triaxial or unconfined compression test.

(c) Punching Shear Failure:

Punching shear failure occurs in soil which is very loose granular or very soft cohesive soil. The settlement in foundation is considerable with increasing the load and load deformation curve is very steep. In soil mass the failure surface will not extent to the ground surface.
 The test sample may not be handled or may slump when taken out of the sampler.

Keywords for this post

foundation engineering, types of failures of foundation, failure types of foundation, general shear failures, shear failure in soil, types of shear failure, foundation failure types.

Railway Track Design online Calculator

Railway engineering is a significant branch of transportation engineering, Railway transportation is an on-land transportation system with air ways and sea ways as other parallel off-land transportation means. Railway transportation share a healthy burden of transportation of a community or country, carrying large bulky luggage from one end to heavy duty tanks, military equipment at the other. 

Railway Track Design Calculator and Excel Sheet for civil engineers

Railway track has few components named as formation, sleepers, rails, ballast and fixtures. Of course they are easy to understand but will not be covered in this post. 

Mostly one very simple part of railway track design includes the calculation of no. of rails, no of sleepers and quantity of the ballast for specific track having fixed dimensions of track length, sleeper depth, width and height.

In this post I will share with you a very common and simple example on how to calculate these basic quantities from the given information about the railway track.

Design of railway track

This is the example that i have followed in developing this calculator.
The information that we need or the inputs we need are given as under;
Sleeper Dimensions = 10' x 10" x 6"
Length of rail = 60 ft.
Sleeper Density = n + 3
Track Length = 20 km
Sleeper Packing = 100%
Joint spacing = 1"
and we need to calculate the following information;
No. Of sleepers = ?
No. Of Rails = ?
Quantum of Ballast = ?
The formulas and solution of this problem is shown in the following diagram along with formulas;

Formula and variables used in design of railway track

Calculation of Railway Track Design

-->

Enter the Sleeper Dimensions
a:		(ft)
d:		(in)
e:		(in)
Enter the Ballast Dimensions
b:		(ft)
c:		(ft)
Enter the Track Specifications
Rail Length (Lr):		(ft)
Track Length (Lt):		(ft)
Joint Spacing b/w rails (S):		(in)
Results
No. Of Rails on one side (Nr):		(nos)
No. Of Rails on Both side (TNR):		(nos)
No. Of Sleepers (Ns):		(nos)
Quantity of Ballast:		(Cubic Feet - CFT)

How to use this calculator

Simply input the Sleeper Dimension, Ballast Dimension and Track specification as defined in the above figure. As an example you can also input the sample example data for testing in the specific fields.

Then just click the Calculate button and there you got the results.

Excel Sheet for Railway Track Design

If you find any difficulty in using this calculator or you are not sure enough about its results you can check the formulas and mechanism used there in by downloading the excel sheet for this sample problem and calculator

Download Excel Sheet

For Editor's Desk

In this post I have assumed that you know the basic terminologies involved in the railway engineering. But don't worry you will see a very healthy dictionary of railway engineering very soon on iamcivilengineer.com so stay tuned. Keep on sharing the good work, it will be helpful for you buddies and civil engineers. 

Disclaimer

The use of above included calculator is only for education and testing purpose, the consequences of the use of this calculator will not be the responsibility of iamcivilengineer.com. so use it on your own risk. 

Vehicular and Industrial Combustion Emissions Presentation

Combustion is a process by which any thing burns, in our industries and in our vehicles we utilize this process to get some energy and then some power. But these combustion processes are not prefect and thus we have some emissions along with it which produces many harmful and hazardous effects on our environment.

vehicular and industrial combustion emissions

 

Abstract of the presentation

In this presentation we will introduce to you the process of combustion going on there in the vehicles and in the various different industries like cement industry, paper industry etc. Then we will cover why the emissions are generated from vehicles and from the industries. After that the introduction of fuel is there, that what are fuels, what are their various types. Then the introduction of certain vehicular and industrial combustion emissions is there like; Particulate Matter (PM2.5) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) and others like Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoixde, Sulfur dioxide, NOx etc.
After this the harmful effects of these emissions is produced on the health of humans and on overall environment like ozone depletion, ground ozone production and smog formation, and at last the global warming.
At the end we have discussed what are the various responsible organization, how they are trying to control vehicular and industrial combustion emissions, and then various recommendations are produced.

Conclusion of the Presentation:

1. Vehicular and industrial combustion emissions are health damaging to alarming level.
2. Increase in economic standards of community, more usage of products, more vehicles more pollutants
3. Pollutants from industries and vehicles causes severe health problems like cancer, heart diseases and breathing problems.
4. Pollutants also effect indirectly in the form of acid rain, smog formation and climate change
5. Introduction of environment friendly technologies like fuel cells etc
6. By spreading awareness among masses will greatly improve the quality of air we are breathing in.

Authors

Authors of this Presentation

 

Preparation Date:

Thursday 18-Dec-2013

Keywords to Reach Here

Vehicular and industrial combustion emissions, vehicular emissions, Particulate matters, Volatile Organic Compounds, Industrial Emissions, smog formation, global warming, global warming and transportation, role of transportation in global warming

Video of the Presentation

http://tune.pk/video/1484922/Dhoom-Vehicular-and-Industrial-Combustion-emission-Video

Download Link

https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B5oarfYUwEDrZDlzOTl5WG80NjQ/edit?usp=sharing

Rain water harvesting and water scarcity problem in Pakistan

The following paragraphs will explain a thing that will let anyone to easily say at the end that the problem always born while taking the solution within itself. The problem we were trying to get the rid off is basically “Water Scarcity” problem, it defines the shortage of water not due to the lack of water but because of mismanagement and lack of planning we lost it very cheaply.

Rain Water Harvesting Tank Installed in House

In order to get converted any problem we need to find a long lasting and feasible solution, the solution which we have found as a result of our research, surveys, study, visits, calculation is Rain water harvesting.

Rain water harvesting a combination of three words is a modern efficient technique to store rainwater in a considerable magnitude in a manner that is always helpful for the victims. 

The water which is commonly wasted through ducts installed on the roofs of the residential, commercial or any other structure is commonly and mostly wasted through ducts and drains off without any usage and suitable advantage. In the solution of this problem we just installed storage tanks that can be underground or above the ground to let the rain water be stored in an efficient way.

The problem of water scarcity is basically because of urbanization, a social phenomenon that lets the rural areas got converted into urban areas, because in urban areas the ground is mostly covered with cemented carpeting that does not let the rainwater to percolated in the soil and reach the underground water tank as its ultimate destination, what happens because of urbanization is; that rainwater is wasted without being used in the form of evaporated water, although water is never wasted but for that land when water is evaporated before its proper usage  it is in waste, Which also causes flooding in the streets and in the urban developed areas of the country.

So to stop it we need to build Inverted recharge wells, this idea in Pakistan has been introduced by CDA(Capital Development Authority) Islamabad, the Deputy Director General of CDA Shahid Sohail, said that this system has been installed behind Faisal mosque and are basically the concrete made underground water reservoirs that has a bore hole with in its core center through which a pipe is installed so as to guide the excessive water in to the ground to help in percolation of water.

Now the question arises why should we do rainwater harvesting, in fact rainwater harvesting is the cheapest of all available methods. It is easy to understand and easy to install it is efficient in economy and efficient in working as well.

In a nutshell we can say that the water scarcity problem can be easily avoided by proper planning and doing rainwater harvesting on the victim areas. It will ensure a solution that will never let you down, and will always have some output to help you out in the rainy days when you don’t have water in your buckets but have water in your eyes.

Keywords to Reach Here:

rainwater harvesting calculator,rain water harvesting methods,rain water harvesting tank,rain water harvesting information,rain water harvesting ppt,rain water harvesting pdf,rain water harvesting system design,rain water harvesting system

What is scouring, Bridge Scouring? How to calculate Scour Depth?

Scouring can be defined as a process due to which the particles of the soil or rock around the periphery of the abutment or pier of the highway bridge spanning over a water body, gets eroded and removed over a certain depth called scour depth. Scouring usually occurs when the velocity of the flowing water increases or crosses the limiting value that the soil particles can easily handle.

Scour at bridge Pier and abutment

When Scouring Happens? Causes?

Scouring can be easily observed during the flood being passed through that water body. Scouring is initiated at the nose of the piers or at the sharp bends. Estimation of scour depth is very important for the design of foundation for abutment or pier. Scouring compromises the structural integrity and thus causes failure of the structure. It has been estimated that over 60 % of the highway bridges are being collapsed due to scouring.

When the discharge within the water body passes the allowed discharge; which is usually the case when flood is there; the scour is initiated; the scour depth can easily be obtained after the flood by finding the depth of the scour in reference with the surroundings or existing structures. If this is not possible the mean depth of scour may be easily obtained by a mathematical formula for natural streams in the alluvial depth.

How to Calculate or Estimate Scour Depth?

Hydraulic Engineering Circular (HEC) has published a manual in which the methods are mentioned some of which are empirical equations or graphs to estimate the scour depth based on the discharge, flow velocity or flow depth etc.

Zeller Equation for estimation of scour depth

If the bed is sand bed streams we can use the empirical Zeller Equation for estimation of scour depth;

Ygs = Ymax [(0.0685 Vm^0.8) / (Yh^0.4 Se ^0.3)-1]
Where Ygs = general scour depth (ft), Ymax is maximum depth of flow, Vm is the average velocity of flow(ft/sec), Yh is hydraulic depth of flow (ft) and Se is the energy slope (or bed slope for uniform flow), (ft)
From actual field measuring scour depth charts to estimate scour depth;

Estimate Scour Depth

This method is applicable only for coarser sands where the bed slope ranges from 0.004 ft to 0.008 ft.
Other empirical methods are also there like Neil, Blench and Lacey for estimation of the scour depth.

Incoming Search Terms

scour depth definition,scour depth calculation,afflux,scour depth meaning,scour depth formula,scour depth calculation formula,scour depth in bridges,local scour

Global Warming and Climate Change efftects, reasons and differences

First let us talk about the brief introduction about what is global warming, what is climate change; what is the relationship between these two. Now for very common meanings Global warming may be defined as;

    “A gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth’s atmosphere generally attributed to the green house effect caused by increase levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants”

global warming

Global Warming and Climate Change

Concept of greenhouse effect and green house gases

The sun, of course, is the ultimate source of heat energy reaching the Earth, fueling our weather systems, and establishing our major climate zones. There is, however, good evidence that larger variations in the sun's activity do occur. For example, during the last half of the 17th century, there was a period of greatly reduced solar activity.

Our atmosphere consists of many gases; some of these gases, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor, naturally absorb long-wave radiation that is emitted from the earth’s surface. Short-wave solar radiation enters the earth’s atmosphere and is absorbed by the earth’s surface. This radiation is then recycled and emitted as long wave terrestrial radiation. Gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide absorb this radiation, hold it in the atmosphere, and keep the temperature of the earth warmer than it would otherwise be if there wasn’t an atmosphere. This is what meteorologists refer to as the “Natural Greenhouse effect”

How greenhouse gases causes global warming

This natural greenhouse effect has a balance and thus the earth is able to provide such an environment on which life can sustain; however human activities add additional trace gases into the atmosphere that causes problems; these additional trace gases absorb-out going long-wave radiation. These additional trace gases include methane, chlorofloro carbons, nitrous oxide, aerosols, zone,

The result is an increase in the amount of long-wave radiation that is being trapped by the atmosphere. It is believed that this could eventually increase the average overall global temperature.


Carbon dioxide "...is considered the trace gas of greatest importance because of the substantial increase in its atmospheric concentration as well as its probable continued rise due to global consumption of fossil fuels".

Due to these additional trace gases; earth’s mean surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 0 c, with about two-thirds of the increase occurring since 1980.

Introduction to climate change

Climate is defined as the analysis of accumulated weather data for long term patterns and trends. Climate change is therefore defined as "long-term weather patterns and trends becoming different over an extended period of time." For example, if the average temperature in Pakistan over the 20th century is significantly higher or lower than the average temperature in Pakistan, over the 19th century, this would be an example of climate change. Thus climate change can be defined as;

“a change in global climate patterns apparent from the mid to late 20th century onwards, attributed largely to the increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by the use of fossil fuels.”

Global Warming Vs Climate Change

 'global warming' and 'climate change". In reality, the two terms mean different things, have both been used for decades.

Both of the terms in question are used frequently in the scientific literature, because they refer to two different physical phenomena.  As the name suggests, 'global warming' refers to the long-term trend of a rising average global temperature, which you can see here:

'Climate change', again as the name suggests, refers to the changes in the global climate which result from the increasing average global temperature.  For example, changes in precipitation patterns, increased prevalence of droughts, heat waves, and other extreme weather, etc.  These projections of future global precipitation changes from the 2007 IPCC report are an example of climate change.

How climate change and global warming is detected?

In general there are 10 indicators with the help of which we can detect climate change and global warming. There are 7 indicators that would be expected to increase in a warming world and 3 indicators would be expected to decrease;

Causes of Global Warming and Climate Change:

Changes in climate can result from both natural events and human activities. Examples of natural causes of climate change are volcanic eruptions, variations in the earth's orbit around the sun, and variations in solar output. Examples of human-induced causes of climate change include industrial pollutants and fossil fuels, warming of average annual temperatures due to urbanization, and changes in the earth's albedo due to deforestation of tropical rainforests. Climate change in the context of this paper refers to changes that result from human activities, especially as these changes relate to the issue of global warming. Of special importance is the "greenhouse gas" effect which is defined as, "The trapping of thermal emissions from the earth's surface by human-induced greenhouse gases”. If global warming is indeed happening, it is the greenhouse gas effect that is believed to be the most responsible.

Earth’s temperature depends on the balance between energy entering and leaving the planet’s system . When incoming energy from the sun is absorbed by the Earth system, Earth warms. When the sun’s energy is reflected back into space, Earth avoids warming. When energy is released back into space, Earth cools. Many factors, both natural and human, can cause changes in Earth’s energy balance, including:

·         Changes in the greenhouse effect, which affects the amount of heat retained by Earth’s atmosphere

·         Variations in the sun’s energy reaching Earth

·         Changes in the reflectivity of Earth’s atmosphere and surface

Since the Industrial Revolution began around 1750, human activities have contributed substantially to climate change by adding CO2 and other heat-trapping gases to the atmosphere. These greenhouse gas emissions have increased the greenhouse effect and caused Earth’s surface temperature to rise. The primary human activity affecting the amount and rate of climate change is greenhouse gas emissions from the burning of fossil fuels.

Green House Gases, sources, and participation in rising of global weather

The most important Green House Gases directly emitted by humans include CO2, CH4, nitrous oxide (N2O), and several others. The sources and recent trends of these gases are detailed below.

Carbon Di oxide CO2

Carbon dioxide is the primary greenhouse gas that is contributing to recent climate change. CO2 is absorbed and emitted naturally as part of the carbon cycle, through animal and plant respiration, volcanic eruptions, and ocean-atmosphere exchange. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use, release large amounts of carbon to the atmosphere, causing CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere to rise.

Methane

Methane is produced through both natural and human activities. For example, natural wetlands, agricultural activities, and fossil fuel extraction and transport all emit CH4.

Methane is more abundant in Earth’s atmosphere now than at any time in at least the past 650,000 years. Due to human activities, CH4 concentrations increased sharply during most of the 20th century and are now more than two-and-a-half times pre-industrial levels. In recent decades, the rate of increase has slowed considerably.

Nitrous oxide

Nitrous oxide is produced through natural and human activities, mainly through agricultural activities and natural biological processes. Fuel burning and some other processes also create N2O. Concentrations of N2O have risen approximately 18% since the start of the Industrial Revolution, with a relatively rapid increase towards the end of the 20th century. In contrast, the atmospheric concentration of N2O varied only slightly for a period of 11,500 years before the onset of the industrial period, as shown by ice core samples. For more information on N2O emissions and sources, and actions that can reduce emissions,

Water Vapor

Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas and also the most important in terms of its contribution to the natural greenhouse effect, despite having a short atmospheric lifetime. Some human activities can influence local water vapor levels. However, on a global scale, the concentration of water vapor is controlled by temperature, which influences overall rates of evaporation and precipitation.  Therefore, the global concentration of water vapor is not substantially affected by direct human emissions.

Ozone

Tropospheric ozone (O3), which also has a short atmospheric lifetime, is a potent greenhouse gas. Chemical reactions create ozone from emissions of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds from automobiles, power plants, and other industrial and commercial sources in the presence of sunlight. In addition to trapping heat, ozone is a pollutant that can cause respiratory health problems and damage crops and ecosystems.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), together called F-gases, are often used in coolants, foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents, pesticides, and aerosol propellants. Unlike water vapor and ozone, these F-gases have a long atmospheric lifetime, and some of these emissions will affect the climate for many decades or centuries.

 Change in Reflectivity characteristic of atmosphere due to human activities

Human changes in land use and land cover have changed Earth’s reflectivity. Processes such as deforestation, reforestation, desertification, and urbanization often contribute to changes in climate in the places they occur. These effects may be significant regionally, but are smaller when averaged over the entire globe. In addition, human activities have generally increased the number of aerosol particles in the atmosphere. Overall, human-generated aerosols have a net cooling effect offsetting about one-third of the total warming effect associated with human greenhouse gas emissions. Reductions in overall aerosol emissions can therefore lead to more warming. However, targeted reductions in black carbon emissions can reduce warming.

Impact or effects of global warming and climate change

Our lives are connected to the climate. Human societies have adapted to the relatively stable climate we have enjoyed since the last ice age which ended several thousand years ago. A warming climate will bring changes that can affect our water supplies, agriculture, power and transportation systems, the natural environment, and even our own health and safety. Carbon dioxide can stay in the atmosphere for nearly a century, so Earth will continue to warm in the coming decades. The warmer it gets, the greater the risk for more severe changes to the climate and Earth's system. Although it's difficult to predict the exact impacts of climate change, what's clear is that the climate we are accustomed to is no longer a reliable guide for what to expect in the future.

Effects of global warming and climate change can be observed in the following fields;

Agriculture

Agriculture and fisheries are highly dependent on specific climate conditions. Trying to understand the overall effect of climate change on our food supply can be difficult. Increases in temperature and carbon dioxide (CO2) can be beneficial for some crops in some places. But to realize these benefits, nutrient levels, soil moisture, water availability, and other conditions must also be met. Changes in the frequency and severity of droughts and floods could pose challenges for farmers and ranchers. Meanwhile, warmer water temperatures are likely to cause the habitat ranges of many fish and shellfish species to shift, which could disrupt ecosystems. Overall, climate change could make it more difficult to grow crops, raise animals, and catch fish in the same ways and same places as we have done in the past. The effects of climate change also need to be considered along with other evolving factors that affect agricultural production, such as changes in farming practices and technology.

Coasts

Climate change could affect coastal areas in a variety of ways. Coasts are sensitive to sea level rise, changes in the frequency and intensity of storms, increases in precipitation, and warmer ocean temperatures. In addition, rising atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) are causing the oceans to absorb more of the gas and become more acidic. This rising acidity could have significant impacts on coastal and marine ecosystems.

The impacts of climate change are likely to worsen many problems that coastal areas already face. Shoreline erosion, coastal flooding, and water pollution affect man-made infrastructure and coastal ecosystems. Confronting existing challenges is already a concern. Addressing the additional stress of climate change may require new approaches to managing land, water, waste, and ecosystems.

Ecosystems

Climate is an important environmental influence on ecosystems. Climate changes and the impacts of climate change affect ecosystems in a variety of ways. For instance, warming could force species to migrate to higher latitudes or higher elevations where temperatures are more conducive to their survival. Similarly, as sea level rises, saltwater intrusion into a freshwater system may force some key species to relocate or die, thus removing predators or prey that were critical in the existing food chain.

Energy

Energy plays an important role in many aspects of our lives. For example, we use electricity for lighting and cooling. We use fuel for transportation, heating, and cooking. Our energy production and use is interconnected with many other aspects of modern life, such as water consumption, use of goods and services, transportation, economic growth, land use, and population growth. Our production and use of energy (most of which comes from fossil fuels) also contributes to climate change.

Forests

Climate changes directly and indirectly affect the growth and productivity of forests: directly due to changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and climate and indirectly through complex interactions in forest ecosystems. Climate also affects the frequency and severity of many forest disturbances.

In conjunction with the projected impacts of climate change, forests face impacts from land development, suppression of natural periodic forest fires, and air pollution. Although it is difficult to separate the effects of these different factors, the combined impact is already leading to changes in our forests. As these changes are likely to continue in the decades ahead, some of the valuable goods and services provided by forests may be compromised.

Human Health

Weather and climate play a significant role in people's health. Changes in climate affect the average weather conditions that we are accustomed to. Warmer average temperatures will likely lead to hotter days and more frequent and longer heat waves. This could increase the number of heat-related illnesses and deaths. Increases in the frequency or severity of extreme weather events such as storms could increase the risk of dangerous flooding, high winds, and other direct threats to people and property. Warmer temperatures could increase the concentrations of unhealthy air and water pollutants. Changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme events could enhance the spread of some diseases.

Water Resources and glaciers

Water resources are important to both society and ecosystems. We depend on a reliable, clean supply of drinking water to sustain our health. We also need water for agriculture, energy production, navigation, recreation, and manufacturing.

Many of these uses put pressure on water resources, stresses that are likely to be exacerbated by climate change. In many areas, climate change is likely to increase water demand while shrinking water supplies. This shifting balance would challenge water managers to simultaneously meet the needs of growing communities, sensitive ecosystems, farmers, ranchers, energy producers, and manufacturers.

In some areas, water shortages will be less of a problem than increases in runoff, flooding, or sea level rise. These effects can reduce the quality of water and can damage the infrastructure that we use to transport and deliver water.

Effect of Global Warming in Pakistan

Change of Raining Pattern

Global warming and climate change has a significant effect on raining pattern. Monsoon Rains in Pakistan is the major rainfall season in Pakistan which has been adversely effected by the climate change, the moon soon season has not only shifted but the intensity of rainfall and area or region has also changed, last year 1400 died in floods, 13,000,000 people displaced.

Melting of Glaciers in Northern Areas in Pakistan

Due to the climate change and global warming, there is an overall increase in the climate of northern areas of Pakistan, this causes an increase in the rate with which glaciers melt; this reduces the Ice Reserves for our home country.Melting of glaciers not only causes floods but also causes agricultural losses, water shortages, massive droughts and food shortages.
Increase of Temperature

In the major cities of Pakistan like Karachi,  Islamabad, Rawalpindi, significant increase of temperature and climate can be observed;  as shown by the following graph of mean temperature trend;

Effect on Ecosystem, Human Health and Marine Life;

There is a widespread adverse health effects due to extreme weather conditions. Several loss of marine life due to reduction in mangrove forests

One of very significant effect as observed in Pakistan is the formation of artificial Attabad Lake in Baltistan due to severe land sliding and snow storm.

According to IPCC(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)study for  countries most at risk from climate related threats, Pakistan is  rated :

•        7th in flood,

•       12th in agriculture.

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